India’s Trade in 2020 Essay

Introduction India’s trade has generally grown at a faster rate compared to the growth of GDP over the past two decades. With the liberalization since 1991 in particular, the importance of international trade in India’s economy has grown considerably. As a result the ratio of international trade to GDP has gone up from 14 per cent in 1980 to nearly 20 per cent towards the end of the decade of 1990s. Given the trends of globalization and liberalization, the openness of Indian economy is expected to grow further in the coming two decades. The more exact magnitude of India’s trade in 2020 and its proportion to India’s national income would be determined by a variety of factors. Many of these factors are in the nature of external shocks and are beyond the control of national policy making. One illustration is the recent surge in the crude oil prices in the international market to unprecedented levels that have impacted the country’s imports in a significant manner. In addition, the implementation of various WTO agreements are likely to affect the India’s trade. India’s trade is also likely to be affected by various bilateral/ regional preferential trade arrangements that have been concluded and those that might take shape in the coming years. This paper attempts to provide a mapping of different factors that are likely to shape the patterns and magnitudes of India’s imports and exports over the coming two decades. These factors are classified into three, namely: 1) factors affecting the demand for India’s exports of goods and services; 2) factors affecting the supply of India’s exports of goods and services; and 3) factors affecting the demand for India’s imports. The supply of imports may be assumed to be elastic and hence is not discussed. The structure of the paper is as follows. Section 1 maps out various factors affecting demand for India’s exports, Section 2, factors affecting supply of India’s exports. Section 3 lists the factors that are likely to affect demand for India’s imports. Section 4 briefly summarizes emerging patterns of India’s comparative advantage in exports of good and services. Section 5 makes some concluding remarks. 1.Factors Affecting the Demand for Exports There is a multitude of factors that are likely to affect the demand for India’s exports of goods and services as seen below. 3 Growth Performance of World Economy and Key Trading Regions The growth rates of the world economy and world trade do influence the overall demand for India’s exports. For instance, the rates of stagnation in the growth rate of world trade in the period since 1996 have affected the growth of India’s exports. Some broad correspondence between the growth rates of world trade and Indian exports is evident from Figure 1. Depending upon the intensities of India’s trade relations the growth prospects in these specific regions may also affect the demand for India’s exports. The regions which may be particularly important for India’s exports include North America, the European Union, Middle East, East and Southeast Asia and South Asia. Therefore, it will be important to watch the growth outlook and projections for these regions. Figure 1: Growth Rates of World Trade and India’s Exports Over the 1990s Source: RIS on the basis of WEO Database of the IMF 1.1.1. World Output and Trade at the Turn of the Century and the Outlook The world economy in 2000 seems to have fully recovered from the slow down of 1998-1999 on account of the East Asian crisis. The estimated world output growth of 4.8 percent in 2000 is highest since 1988 and of world trade at 12.4 percent is highest of the past 25 years (Table 1, Figure 1). The impressive recovery of the world economy and world trade in the early part of 2000 generated optimism all around as countries expected to benefit from favourable spillovers in the form of rise in demand for their exports. However, the optimism has proved to be short lived. It has been partly tarnished somewhat by the crude oil prices hitting the roof in the third quarter of 2000 and adversely affecting the outlook of many regions besides raising the threats of inflation in different parts of the world. Furthermore and more importantly, the emerging trends confirm that a trend of slow down was set in the US economy in the third quarter of the 2000. Hence, fears of a hard landing of the US economy in 2001 have continued to grow. A scenario of hard landing of the US economy in 2001 is thus likely to short-circuit the rebound of the world economy of 1999-2000, even though the major European Union economies are improving their performance. The Japanese economy continues to remain sluggish. The slow down of the US economy has a compounded effect on the growth of the world economy by adversely affecting the demand for the products of partner countries as well. As a result the growth rate of world output is likely to slow down in 2001 from the levels reached in 2000 to 3.2. The world economy is expected to pick up moderately to 3.9 per cent in 2002. The effect of the impending slow down is more severe on the growth rate of world trade which is likely to reduce by nearly half from the rate achieved in 2000 to around 6.5 per cent in 2001 and 2001. In the light of recent trends, the outlook for the world economy and trade growth over the next ten years could be taken at 3 and 6 per cent respectively. *Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand. #ASEAN-4. Source: RIS based on World Bank (2001), IMF (2001). 1. WTO Agreements Since the implementation of the Final Act of the Uruguay Round in 1995, the WTO Agreements have become important factors in determining the patterns of world trade. Their full impact is not yet obvious as many provisions of these agreements are yet to be implemented because of the transition period provided. Most of the remaining provisions of the WTO agreements would be implemented in the coming five years. Therefore, the patterns of trade in 2020 would have to be speculated keeping in mind the impact of full implementation of the WTO agreements. Some of the agreements which are likely to affect India’s exports are the following. 1. Agreement on Textiles and Clothing The Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) proposes to phase out the MFA quotas imposed by the developed countries on the imports of textiles and clothing from developing countries over a period of 10 years ending on 31st December 2004. Given the fact that India has substantially fulfilled her quota for the products coming under MFA, it may appear that the phasing out of these quotas would help in the expansion of exports. However, the impact of the phase out is likely to be a mixed bag. This is because with MFA phase out, Indian exporters would be competing directly with other exporters of textiles and garments such as China, Korea, Taiwan, Pakistan, Thailand, Turkey, Mexico, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Macau, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, among others. Therefore, while ATC provides an opportunity to Indian exporters to expand their exports of textiles and garments by removing the quota restrictions, it also poses a challenge of increased international competition. Some of them will enjoy preferential access to the importing countries due to their least developed country (LDC) status such as Bangladesh. There are apprehensions on the full benefits of phase out being available to developing countries. As such the schedule of the phase-out has been back-loaded over a ten-year long phase-out period. The industrialized countries may use other protectionist measures such as anti-dumping to prevent market access after the phase-out of quotas. A large number of textiles and clothing products already face tariffs in the range of 15 to 30 per cent in the Quad countries (World Bank, 2000). Some attempts of restricting them with anti-dumping duties have already been made against these exports including those from India. Another factor that will affect the competitiveness of Indian exports of textiles and garments in the post-MFA regime is the availability of trade preferences to emerging competitors of India. For instance, Mediterranean countries such as Turkey, Cyprus and Malta and Central and Eastern European countries enjoy free trade agreement with the European Union ahead of their full membership. The Caribbean countries enjoy a similar preferential access to the United States market under the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI). Mexico enjoys a privileged access to the North American Market as a member of NAFTA. These trade preferences have already resulted into diversion of trade in textiles and clothing to these countries. For instance, Mexican exports of clothing to the United States have grown at the rate of 27 and 15 percent in 1998 and 1999, respectively with the growth rate of exports to Canada in these years being 30 percent and 26 percent, respectively. Similarly, exports of clothing from Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Turkey to the European Union in 1998 have grown at 26 percent, 14 percent, 11 percent, 23 percent and 11 percent, respectively (WTO, 2000). The ability of Indian exporters to take advantage of phase out the MFA quotas by 2004 will depend upon a number of factors such as their ability to enhance overall international competitiveness with productivity and efficiency improvements, quality control, ability to quickly come up with new designs, ability to respond to changes in consumer preferences rapidly and the ability to move up the value chain by building brand names and acquiring channels of distribution to more than outweigh the advantages of her competitors. The reservation of the garment industry for small-scale sector has affected capital investment, modernization and automation in the sector in the country. Although the small sector operation has imparted flexibility, it has prevented exploitation of economies of scale and scope by the Indian industry. The new Textiles Policy takes care of some of the concerns. It remains to be seen if the Indian industry will be able to exploit the opportunities provided by the incr eased market access with the MFA phase-out. 2. Agreement on Agriculture (AoA): The AoA proposes to liberalize the international trade in agriculture by restricting the agricultural subsidies provided by governments to the farmers, reduction in export subsidies in agriculture, removal of QRs and establishment of tariff rate quotas applicable to trade in agricultural commodities. In general India’s obligations under AoA are limited given the low level of agricultural subsidies compared to EU and the US. It is believed that implementation of the AoA commitments by industrialized countries will benefit countries like India in terms of market access for some agricultural commodities. However, the implementation of the commitments on the part of industrialized countries so far does not provide any room for optimism. The extent of subsidies given by industrialized countries have actually increased over the past few years as acknowledged by OECD reports. It is possible that in the coming years the provisions of the Agreement are implemented in the letter and spi rit. The likely effect of the full implementation on India’s trade is difficult to be speculated. However, one can have an idea about the likely scenario from efficiency indicators and incentive structure. Given lower than world prices of rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, chickpea and cotton in India, their exports may expand under the liberalised trade in agriculture. Hence the area under cultivation for these crops may increase since profitability and effective incentives will get tilted in favour of these crops. The same is true for pearl millet, pigeonpea and soyabean. However, production of oilseeds e.g. groundnut, rapeseed, mustard and sunflower, and pulses may be adversely affected in a free-trade scenario given the lower world prices. Thus, the import dependence in edible oils and pulses may increase. 3. Anti-dumping Regulations The Indian exports of a number of commodities have been subjected to anti-dumping regulations by some of our important trading partners such as the United States and the European Union. The onslaught of the anti-dumping measures on Indian exports is likely to increase in future with the growing competitiveness of Indian products. In order to minimize their disruptive effect of these regulations on India’s exports, the industry and government will have to strengthen the machinery to counter such actions (Panchamukhi, 2000). 1.2.4. Tariff Negotiations and New Trade Round Although the average tariff rates in the industrialized countries are low, they have high peak tariffs for certain products, some of which are of export interest to India such as textiles and garments, and agricultural commodities (see Table 3). Market access for these products could be facilitated by our ability to secure reduction in these tariffs in the industrialized countries through future tariff negotiations in the WTO framework. N.B. HS Chapters are given in parentheses. Source: RIS based on UNCTAD/WTO (2000) The Post-Uruguay Round Tariff Environment For Developing Country Exports: Tariff Peaks and Tariff Escalation, UNCTAD, Geneva (TD/B/COM.1/14/Rev.1; 28 January 2000) 1.2.5.Trade Preferences for the Least Developed Countries One emerging development in the WTO system has been the tendency to divide the developing countries with the offer of special trade preferences for the least developed countries. A sizeable proportion of India’s exports still comprise labour and resource intensive goods that are also exported by some of the least developed countries. If successful these preferences have the prospects of diverting trade from India to the least developed countries. The potential of these trade preferences for adversely affecting India’s exports needs to be kept in mind. 2. China’s Accession to WTO One of the important events of the coming years for the world trade may be the entry of China into the WTO regime. China signed an agreement with the US for its entry into the WTO in November 1999. It has subsequently been negotiating such agreements with other WTO members. The accession of China to the WTO and hence the MFN status that it will receive from other WTO countries may have some implications for the competitiveness of India’s exports. This is because India and China compete in the international market for a number of labour intensive and matured technology goods such as textiles and garments, leather goods, light engineering products, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, among others. China has already been giving tough competition to Indian exports in many commodities and markets. There is a view that the accession to WTO may further strengthen China’s competitiveness and hence may affect the Indian exports adversely. There is another view that the accession of China to WTO would force it to follow WTO norms and procedures, etc. and will bring their trade policy under international surveillance. State subsidies will be regulated and hence it will make it more difficult for the Chinese exporters to dump their products in the world market. The exact impact of the accession of China to the WTO on the India’s export prospects will depend upon these counteracting effects. It is important to analyze the effects of Chinese accession to WTO on the competitiveness of Indian exports. 1.4. Preferential Trade Arrangements/Free Trade Arrangements in Rest of the World The last decade and a half has seen the proliferation of regional trading arrangements in different parts of the world. The major trading blocks that have emerged over the years include the European Union, NAFTA, Mercosur, AFTA, COMESA, among others. Besides, these free trade and common market agreements, a number of other countries have become integrated with the trading blocks through a variety of preferential or free trade arrangements. For instance, European Union has extended free trade agreement treatment to a number of Central Eastern European Union and Mediterranean countries in anticipation of full membership to these countries in the EU. These arrangements could also act to divert trade away from India especially in the labour intensive goods, as indicated earlier in the case of textiles and clothing. 1.5.Regional/Bilateral Free Trade Arrangements India has taken several steps to liberalize trade with her trading partners in the South Asia region on regional as well as bilateral basis. These steps include participation to SAARC Preferential Trading Arrangements (SAPTA) that came into being in December 1995. Under this Agreement, India has exchanged trade concessions with the SAARC member countries for nearly 3000 commodities in the first three rounds of negotiations. The fourth round of these negotiations is in the process. It is expected that the process of trade liberalization in the framework of SAARC will culminate into a South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA), although, it may take some time to take shape given the current impasse in the SAARC process. Besides SAPTA, India has recently signed a bilateral free trade agreement with Sri Lanka. India already has bilateral free trade agreement with Nepal and Bhutan. A bilateral free trade agreement is being contemplated with Bangladesh as well. There are other attempts of regional/sub-regional economic integration which may also come into being in the coming decade, for instance, BIMST-EC (Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand Economic Cooperation) which has been formed recently may adopt a preferential trading arrangement between the member countries. Although India is also a founder member of the Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation (IOR-ARC), a preferential trading arrangement is not contemplated as the Association has adopted the concept of open regionalism on the lines of APEC. All these attempts at free trade with the regional partners may open the markets for Indian goods further in the countries concerned. It is evident that the share of South Asian countries in India’s exports has increased from 2.73 to 4.9 over the period 1990 to 1999. The recent initiatives in regional/ bilateral trade liberalization may help to divert some trade of the countries concerned from their other trading partners in favour of India given the supply capabilities. 2. Factors Affecting the Supply of Exports It is widely believed that the major factors constraining India’s exports lie not in the lack of demand but more in the supply side constraints. Most of the supply side factors need to be addressed as a part of the policy towards trade. Some of the factors that constrain the volume and composition of India’s exports are as follows: 1. Infrastructural Bottlenecks It is widely accepted that India’s export potential remains considerably unfulfilled because of infrastructure bottlenecks such as power shortages, port handling facilities, delays in transportation which in turn are due to poor transport links within the country and poor communication facilities. The inability of Indian exporters in meeting supply schedules costs dearly in terms of image of India as a reliable source of supply. Not only that the availability of the infrastructure services is inadequate but the efficiency and quality of the delivery of what is available is highly uneven. The ability of the government in removing these constraints in the coming years will also determine the supply side of Indian exports. 2. Growth of Domestic Demand A rapid growth of domestic demand may also affect India’s ability to export at least in certain products, for instance, in tea where the rapid growth of domestic demand is expected to reduce the export surplus in the coming years. It may also apply to a number of other agricultural commodities such as rice, cotton, among others. 2.3 Inflows of Export-oriented Foreign Direct Investment Multinational enterprises (MNEs) have played an important role in the rapid growth of manufactured exports from the East and South-East Asian countries. This is because the South East and East Asian countries were able to attract export platform investments from US and Japanese MNEs in the 1970s and 1980s. The export platform or export-oriented investment arises in the process of relocation of production by MNEs abroad in order to maintain their international competitiveness in the face of rising wages and other costs in their home countries. In Malaysia and Indonesia, for instance, 70 percent of the projects involving FDI have been export-oriented. In China, the share of foreign owned firms in exports has risen from 5 percent in 1988 to 40 percent by 1997. In contrast, the share of foreign affiliates in India’s exports is marginal at 5 to 7 percent (Kumar and Siddharthan, 1997, for a review of evidence from different countries). Therefore, India has not been able to exploit the potential of MNEs for export-oriented production. MNEs can play an important role in promotion of India’s manufacture exports with relocation of export platform production in the country with their access to global marketing networks, best practice technology and organizational know-how. To some extent, therefore, India’s ability to attract export-oriented FDI will determine the magnitude of India’s exports in 2020. The studies have shown that export-oriented FDI inflows are of special type and are determined by different factors than other types of FDI (Kumar, 1994). The studies also find differences in the nature and determinants of export platform investments that are geared to MNEs’ home markets and those targeting the third countries (Kumar, 1998). India may make an effort to target the export platform investments of both types by sharpening her bundle of resource endowments and created assets in the l ight of determinants identified by these studies. 5. Technological Upgrading and Movement along with the Value Chain The Indian export structure has been highly dominated by simple and un-differentiated products where the main competitive advantage lies in cheap labour, low levels of skills and simple technologies compared to that of China and South East Asian countries except for recent growth of pharmaceuticals and software services (Lall, 1999). Not only these products are slow moving, the export structure is highly vulnerable to competition. India’s competitiveness has also been adversely affected by the failure to diversify the commodity composition of our exports. In fact the commodity concentration of India’s exports has increased with a 9 percent rise in the share of top six groups of exports in total and exports between 1987-1988 to 1998-99 (Kumar, 2000a). In comparison to India, Southeast and East Asian countries have rapidly diversified their export structure in favour of technologically advanced goods. For instance, share of technologically advanced goods (differentiated and science based goods) in India’s manufactured exports rose marginally to about 8 per cent by the mid-1990s over 5.6 per cent in the mid-1970s; in China, this proportion increased from 8.8 per cent to 23 per cent over the 1987-95 period, and for Malaysia from 12 per cent to 57 per cent over the 1980 to 1995 (Pigato et al. 1997). The markets for low technology undifferentiated goods are highly price competitive and margins are kept under pressure by constant competition by entry of new low wage countries.

The practice of nursing research: appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence Essay

Nursing Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Reliable sources are very crucial in the health care sector since they help students to stay updated as well as enhancing their success in their classes. Relevant sources include websites, books, appropriate publications as well as online library. An effective research requires the student to define the topic, identification of concepts, and selection of relevant sources. Prior to any research, students should assess the reliability of sources and examine the sources to be used for specific tasks. Students can easily identify dubious materials by comparing multiple sources as their search approach. Therefore, they will be able to evaluate the worth of the information. The rationale of this paper is to describe appropriate use of wisdom continuum in nursing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Access to updated, accurate and pertinent information is increasingly becoming crucial for the nurses to adopt evidence-based practice and ensure their knowledge is updated. Nurses use different information sources to realize their information requirements. The main question to be addressed in this paper is why it is vital to consider the clinical resolution making situation, when exploring the approaches that nurses connect with research based information. It is also crucial to consider the rapport between the usefulness and accessibility of date from distinct sources and the verdict made regarding the information. It may be argued that for people to persuade the nurses to effectively employ research evidence when making clinical decisions, they must acknowledge the rapport between verdict from the nurses and the data that enlightens them (Solomon, 2010).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Evidence-based decision making entails combining the information that crop up from patient choices, clinical expertise, and research facts within the framework of accessible resources. When making decisions, nurses choose from discrete range of alternatives (Thompson, 2004). The process of employing clinical judgment involves making decision from informed choices by evaluating the accessible data. Nurses should give appropriate weight to research evidence depending on its external and internal legitimacy. Integrating research facts into decision making involves composing a strategic clinical question regarding certain information need, evaluating the most appropriate information to solve that need, proper scrutiny of the obtained data, integrating the information into a plan, and weighing up the impact of the actions and decisions taken (Polit & Beck, 2010).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Decision making based on the information is a dogmatic method to making choices of how speculation can be employed to advance decision making. The central point is: how nurses utilize research based data in decision making? Little studies have been carried on this topic, apart from research that utilizes data from self report information from nurses as a basis of facts. Self report should not be considered as chief source of information to fill the gaps in support of ideal clinical observation and in-depth interviews, which nurses consider superior to address frequencies and types of varied decisions and practical information use (Polit & Beck, 2010). The major challenge of researching how individuals respond to inadequate evidence is that it is hard to identify the inadequacy of the needs. Researchers can only hypothesize nurses’ behavior by watching them or about what they say, since information need only subsist in the psyche of the person with the need. The need cannot be alienated from the intentions of evidence seeking actions. In developing motives, people make choices from values and beliefs that had formerly contented information requirements (Melnyk & Overholt, 2011).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For proponents of fact based judgment making, the fundamental purpose for involving research based facts is to cut down uncertainty in clinical field. This implies that appropriate research increases the probability that the decision taken will give desired results. In some cases, new data can also elucidate or confirm present data, values and beliefs. Forms of clinical resolutions that nurses make offer an idea on how research information can help in decision making. Decisions are significant framework for utilization of information. The decisions that nurses are required make are work related, how they view their clinical duty, autonomy in operation, and the extent to which they believe they are influential and active decision makers. Nurses face decision complexity because of the following factors. Firstly, due to diverse and multiple decision objectives. Secondly, due to time constrain in decision making. Third, the conflicting decisio n aspects. Nurses face different challenges in decision making, since they have to make appropriate decision based on code of ethics. For a nurse to make appropriate decision making, rely on whether the decision lies within the continuum. The decision made also depend on the form of task appearance, the uncertainty of the task and the intricacy of the task. However, familiarity of a decision is not adequate to determine the form of reasoning involved (Burns & Grove, 2009).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, it is vital to understand the link between the decision to be made by the nurse and the facts that enlighten them. Nurses use different information sources to realize their information requirements. Nurses should assign weight to the research evidence depending on its interior and exterior validity. The major challenges that face the nurse are the fact that it is not easy to recognize the information needs. Information need is linked to the motive of the nurse, thus nurses must be focused as they make their decisions. Decisions are crucial framework for the nurses especially for information use. References Burns, N., & Grove, S. K. (2009). The practice of nursing research: appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence (6th ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Saunders/Elsevier. Evidence-Based Nursing. (n.d.). ebn. Retrieved September 9, 2014, from http://ebn.bmj.com/content/7/3/68.long Melnyk, B. M., & Overholt, E. (2011). Evidence-based practice in nursing & healthcare: a guide to best practice (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Essentials of nursing research: appraising evidence for nursing practice (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Solomon, J. (2010). New look Evidence-Based Nursing. Evidence-Based Nursing, 13(1), 2-2. Thompson, C. (2004). Nurses, Information Use, And Clinical Decision Making–the Real World Potential For Evidence-based Decisions In Nursing. Evidence-Based Nursing, 7(3), 68-72. Source document

Demography and Epidemiology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Health Information Systmes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

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Electronic and Internet Public Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Electronic and Internet Public Relations - Essay Example It has now become a necessity to integrate computer-mediated communication (CMC) with the PR mix of an organization. In the field of PR, internet makes it possible to communicate with various key constituencies without the message being altered by the media. The traditional channels are eliminated and direct communication with the audience is possible. The proliferation of the internet has allowed easier and faster access to information by the people as more than 50% homes in the US and the UK are internet-connected (Holtz, 2006). The internet has moved beyond a one-way channel for information and the speed of the internet, interactivity and the crossing of national borders make it highly attractive to public relations practitioners as a communication strategy tool (Hurme, 2001). Internet is different from World Wide Web (WWW) because in the WWW it is possible to place the advertising material like the company balance sheets or annual reports or new releases (Jo & Jung, 2005). WWW can be used as a distribution channel to reduce or eliminate distribution costs for products. Consumers can browse through the website and extract information before purchasing a product or service but this is only a one-way communication. The Web has been bifurcated into three different braches due to the social and technological changes that have taken place. These include the reference web which typically gives out information to the surfers, the collaborative web – through which the users share information and becomes a publisher on the net. The third is the broadband web which has turned the web into an audio and video venue (Holtz, 2006). Internet has thus been exploited in different ways to build and enhance the PR that an organization wants to build. Internet as a tool for PR can enhance media relations, employee communication, government relations and customer relations, due to its interactive function

Evaluation of dietary advice given to patients receiving external beam Essay

Evaluation of dietary advice given to patients receiving external beam radiotherapy to the prostate with recommendations to curr - Essay Example However, due to inadequate instructions and disagreements to such treatment and dose instructions, conflicting results have been obtained in relation to the appropriate practices for prostate cancer patients and their diet, bladder, and rectal volumes. Comparison between previous studies and application of findings into standard clinical practice have become a challenge that should be effectively addressed to ensure optimal health among prostate cancer patients who have been undergoing radiation therapy (Smitsman et al. 2008). Treatment for prostate cancer requires patients to obtain adequate nutrition through a well-balanced diet, although greater difficulty can be experienced due to the fact that the body is exerting effort in fighting the cancer. Moreover, it is also working ultimately for the repair of healthy cells which radiation therapy may have damaged. At the same time, radiation therapy can bring about adverse side effects which considerably reduce the patient’s stre ngth and debilitate his appetite. As radiation therapy damages the healthy cells in one’s body along with the prostate cancer cells, this can cause irritation to the intestines. The intestines play a fundamental role in the intake of food and fluids into the body; thus, the irritation that can be experienced by the intestines due to radiation therapy will reduce its ability to process food and water, causing abdominal pain as well (Heemsbergen, Hoogeman, and Witte 2007). Intestinal irritation can be experienced during and after the radiation therapy with which its adverse side effects can be experienced for an estimate of 6 to 18 months after the duration of the therapy. As such, being provided with the most effective and suitable dietary advice is of paramount importance. On the whole, an increase in vegetable, fruit, and healthy grain intake has been suggested along with the reduction or complete avoidance of fatty foods, dairy products, high levels of sugar intake, and har mful beverages (Chan, Ghan, and Giovannucci 2005). Aside from dietary changes, certain medications are also provided to prostate cancer patients to alleviate the intestinal irritation symptoms attributed to radiation treatment, including loose bowel movements, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps. An enzyme in the body that is significantly affected by radiation therapy is lactose, which assists the body in digesting milk and other dairy products (Agarwal et al. 2008). Doctors or registered dietitians tend to recommend a diet that is low in lactose intake after the patient has undergone radiation treatment as it makes lactose difficult to be digested for a period of time. Compared to while milk, fermented milk products, such as yogurt and sour cream, can be more easily digested by cancer patients; cheese, puddings, ice cream, and other food products that contain high levels of lactose should be avoided. Because commercial foods can be incorporated with lactose, such as instant cof fee, it is important that food labels are carefully checked. Foods that contain high levels of fiber, including whole grain and bran products, should be avoided as well as these can accelerate the digestion process and exacerbate bowel movements. A low-fiber diet can, thus, help in the

Film Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Film Review - Essay Example Day for Night, the title, speaks for itself. The soundtrack of the movie is by Georges Delerue which ornate the filmmaking art (IMDb, 1973). The plot of the movie revolves around Je Vous Presente Pamela (melodrama) and Jean—Pierre Aumont who portrays Alexandre, young heart-throb Alphonse (Jean-Pierre Leaud), Julie Baker (Jacquine Bisset, an actress from Britain) and Severine (Valentina Cortese). Julie Baker is voming back from a nervous collapse and also an argument directing to her matrimony with an elderly doctor. In the middle are various small monographs reporting the stories of director and members of crew and also of Trauffaut himself in the role of Ferrand, behind camera, all actors and crews go through various affairs, romances, split-ups, and its aftermaths. The production gets traumatized when fiancee of Alphonse leaves him for stuntman of the movie which further leads to one night sleep with Julie. It all happens when Alexandre dies in a car accident and one of the secondary characters is found to be pregnant. The characters all appear cliche and kind of imaginary in Francois Truffaut's comedy-drama and fun production in a witty hall of mirrors. The most eminent actor in real life, Jean-Pierre Leaud seems to be playing with an immature costar, Jacqueline Bisset. The balance is dysfunctional. However, Truffaut manages to keep the audience captivated by the technical means and stylistic efforts of Truffaut. The cast overall is good as actors are sometimes playing role of fictional thespians or crew members. The time period is effective. It is an interesting movie which stars Truffaut playing director who is shooting a movie. He himself is the most convincing and modest actor, while intertwining a story about how movies are actually made and how penetrating the emotional interactions between people making the movie can be. The camera angels are perfect. Movie starts a bit of amateurish but as one hangs on to it, it becomes interesting. It is a lo w tech film however. Truffaut gives us an insight into how the crew of production works, sometimes at odds while showing things which can go erroneous at the set. Movie starts with technical complexities of the production but after some time is focused on movie makers personalities and individual tales of each one of them. The audience basically is film making students or students from media background. But, it appeals to people from all facets of life. Each story is meticulously crafted in a lavish way almost like most of the characters in a soap opera. With it, Truffaut brings together emotional conflict and how this conflict can be utilized to resolve many tales without being over emotional. I don’t like the version of the movie and there are some problems with the cinematography. The dubbed version I saw is kind of disturbing as I am trying to reunite dubbed actor with visualized one. Also, Jacqueline Bisset who is fluent in English is speaking French and somebody else is speaking English for her is a lot to take. Well I would recommend the French version with subtitles. The message Truffaut is trying to give here is what we say on Television or movies is a simplified version of what actually is happening behind the camera. Truffaut is the type of

MBA Applied Managerial Finance 615 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

MBA Applied Managerial Finance 615 - Essay Example have reviewed the report that it did not contain any false information either by omission or by misleading and that the financial statement fairly reflects the true financial condition of the company (www.soxlaw.com a, 2003). In addition, the signing officers must have also reviewed the internal controls of the company. Section 404 of Sarbanes-Oxley Act on the other hand mandates that issuers are required to publish their annual reports â€Å"concerning the scope and adequacy of the internal control structure and procedures for financial reporting. This statement shall also assess the effectiveness of such internal controls and procedures† (www.soxlaw.com b, 2003). In the case of Apex Printing, they have only complied with the Section 404 of Sarbanes-Oxley Act which is the requirement to publish their annual reports and its attending internal control structure but it is not yet certified by signing officers that the financial information that they will publish is materially true and accurate. In effect, it is like making known the company’s financial information without ensuring its accuracy which is susceptible to misrepresentation if not downright unethical. The importance of being compliant in the Section 302 is not only to avoid criminal liability from regulatory agencies such as Security of Exchange Commission but also to become an ethical company. In an age of heightened public awareness against corporate malfeasance, it will not be right to skirt laws which are designed to protect the interest of the various shareholders of company from fraud. It will hurt the reputation of the company which has numerous repercussions from not being able to do an IPO to source external funding to non-patronage of its products or services in the market due to the suspicion of its customers that the company is a fraud. Considering the various repercussion of non-compliance to Section 302 of Sarbanes Oxley Act, that ranges from a) non-launch of an initial public

Higher Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Higher Education - Essay Example transferring knowledge, skills and cultural values to the students, higher education teachers are indirectly keeping young and unemployed individuals off the streets (Stephens & Leach, 1998, p. 203). In general, each of the school teacher(s) have different set of multiple roles which they need to satisfy on a daily basis. Because of their unique function within an educational institution, functionalists may sometimes conclude that the presence of certain school policies and institutions can be dysfunctional for most of the teachers within a given educational institution. As explained by Appelrouth and Edles (2008, p. 386), the occurrence of dysfunctionality is possible because â€Å"they are functional for a more powerful social group or the social system itself†. Functionalists strongly suggest that the main function of higher education teachers is to provide better occupational opportunities for the unemployed students in the long-run. Upon analyzing the functionalist theory of education, it is the students who function as the receiver of the transferred knowledge, skills and cultural values from the school teachers. However, this theory is not applicable when it comes to analyzing the relationship between teachers and students in higher education. Conflict Theory Conflict theory view education as something that â€Å"reflects other inequalities within a given society† (Andersen & Taylor, 2011, p. 348). Because of the presence of racial, class and gender discrimination, not all students are able to receive equal rights to education. Furthermore, conflict perspective in higher education also suggest that the process of tracking down teachers’ ability to deliver good quality teaching based on the prescribed school curriculum also contributes to the development of... This essay stresses that based on symbolic interaction theory, social interaction between teachers and students within an educational institution is possible and necessary when it comes to individual and group successes. As compared to functionalist theory, symbolic interaction theory view human beings within a given society as something that is â€Å"not an established structure but as individuals who are trying to meet their life conditions and expectations†. Based on the core perspectives in contemporary sociological theory, the concept of a structural functionalism is more on the non-rational collective side whereas the orientation of symbolic interaction theory is more on non-rational and individualistic side. Considering the fact that symbolic interaction theory heavily relies on the actions made by the school teachers and students, this particular theory can be more effective and applicable in terms of analyzing how the relationship between the school teachers and stude nts in higher education work. This report makes a conclusion that as compared to functionalist and conflict theories, symbolic interactionism theory is the best applicable theory when it comes to analyzing the relationship between teachers and students in higher education. Unlike the functionalist and conflict theories in sociology, symbolic interactionism theory does not focus on analyzing the structure or functionality or conflicts in a given educational institution but only with regards to how each of the stakeholders who are trying to meet their life conditions and expectations as human beings.

Gary Kelly CEO of Southwest Airlines Research Paper

Gary Kelly CEO of Southwest Airlines - Research Paper Example He has a background as an accountant (Fitzpatrick). He has proven himself throughout the years to be both a steady leader and a confident innovator. The airline industry is extremely competitive and profit margins are at the mercy of a number of factors beyond the control of even the most activist CEO. He is routinely called one of the best CEOs in the United States (McCann). His personal background is somewhat instructive. A story is told of him wanting to be an oceanographer as a young man, but then moving to Texas to play football in university. It was a bad season and he moved on to try something else: accountancy (Fitzpatrick). Throughout his life he is quick to size up errors and shift focus when things are not working out. There are few better qualities in the leader of a large business. In a sense Kelly comes to work in the shadow of the man who built Southwest Airlines, Herb Kelleher, but he has distinguished himself from the founder in a number of ways. While most other air lines were seeking to charge customers for every pretzel, Kelly saw an opportunity. People thought he was crazy, but he decided to respect customers. He saw the market going one way, and he understood instinctively that space was opening for Southwest to seize. He refused to charge customers for baggage, and the company quickly shot to profitability. A recent article quoted Kelleher on his successor. "To be an excellent leader, you have to be a superb follower," Kelleher said. "Gary has provided great leadership. We transitioned for three years, and then he took over everything that I normally did. I'm very, very pleased and proud of his accomplishments" (LA Times). Being adaptable has helped Kelly and Southwest succeed in a way that few airlines have done in this day and age. Not only has he expanded Southwest's market, but he has become something of a legend. A story that business reporters like to quote goes as follows: When Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans— Southw est Airline’s largest hub—the company’s service to the city dramatically dropped from 57 flights a day to just two. Â  But while the City of New Orleans was forced to lay off workers, Southwest was able to offer the option of relocation to all of its 250 New Orleans employees (McCann). For many other companies this would have been devastating, but for Kelly it was an opportunity. It is clear that his leadership style owes a great deal to seeing opportunity where others see disaster. He isn't afraid to pursue risky projects, but knows that customers come first. Recent problems with Southwest aircraft have given Kelly a chance to shine in front of the national media. In early April, a Southwest plane suffered from a tear in its fuselage. This attracted a great deal of attention and lead a number of news broadcasts. Kelly had a choice with this situation. He could have said that the problem was just a fluke, a once-in-a-lifetime structural defect. That would have been the easy thing to do. But instead he chose to show what kind of leader he is. He ordered the fleet grounded for inspection (Martin, et al). Kelly understood that branding and marketing are important, but that when it comes to basic issues of safety, airlines cannot afford to skimp. Recovering from the negative attention can only be done by showing that Southwest has a safety climate with a real abundance-of-caution philosophy. His actions were widely heralded, even if they were expensive and

Mandatory Drug Testing of Welfare Recipients Essay Example for Free

Mandatory Drug Testing of Welfare Recipients Essay Thesis Statement Overall, mandatory drug testing initiatives have noble intentions such as: providing medical care to the abuser, preventing lifelong dependency, and saving taxpayer dollars, however, states should choose to not implement the intrusive testing because it is unconstitutional, costly, and ultimately detrimental to the child, not the parents. Through this presentation you will.. †¢ Learn about how widespread welfare usage is, and the history behind welfare reform. †¢ Understand why some legislators advocate for mandatory drug testing †¢ Look at the facts and realize that it is not only unconstitutional but also not an efficient means of spending allocated funds. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. Reasons Why Supporters Believe in Mandatory Drug Testing Overall good of youth dependents Zero tolerance policy Some buy drugs with welfare Tax payers have a right to know That their funds are spent well employed people must take drug tests Overall well being of invidual All reasoning lead to their overall stance, pro-testing. Reasons Why They Don’t Believe in Mandatory Drug Testing th amemmendment) Unconstiutional (4 Cost Prohibitative Embarassing and untimely Potential false positives or false negatives This is why CPS etc. exists Kid gets punished; not the adult All reasoning lead to their overall stance, against testing. Florida Welfare Drug Testing Graphic- DO THE MATH. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. Conclusion Mandatory drug testing for welfare recipients is unconstitutional, because no just-cause to search and seize. We must trust that although it isn’t constitutional or affordable to drug test all people, other agencies are other there to protect the children, if abuse or neglect is occurring Correlation does not imply causation. Work Cited Amundson, Kalynn, Anna M. Zajicek, and Valerie H. Hunt. Pathologies Of The Poor: What Do The War On Drugs And Welfare Reform Have In Common?. Journal Of Sociology Social Welfare 41.1 (2014): 5-28. Academic Search Premier. Web. 5 May 2014 Gupta, Vanita. Should Welfare Recipients Be Tested For Drugs?. U.S. News Digital Weekly 3.46 (2011): 14. Academic Search Complete. Web. 6 May 2014. Lyle, Lindsey. Floridas Legislation Mandating Suspicionless Drug Testing Of TANF Beneficiaries: The Constitutionality And Efficacy Of Implementing Drug Testing Requirements On The Welfare Population. Tennessee Journal Of Law Policy 8.(2012): 68-85. Academic Search Complete. Web. 6 May 2014. Work Cited Rhodes, Tim, Sarah Bernays, and Kathrin Houmoller. Parents Who Use Drugs: Accounting for Damage and Its Limitation. Social Science Medicine 71.8 (2010): 1489-497. Web. 6 May 2014. Vitter, David. Should Welfare Recipients Be Tested For Drugs?. U.S. News Digital Weekly 3.46 (2011): 14. Business Source Complete. Web. 6 May 2014. Vitter, David. Should Welfare Recipients Be Tested For Drugs?. U.S. News Digital Weekly 3.46 (2011): 14. Business Source Complete. Web. 6 May 2014. Wurman, Ilan. Drug Testing Welfare Recipients As A Constitutional Condition. Stanford Law Review 65.5 (2013): 1153-1193. Academic Search Complete. Web. 6 May 2014.

Prison Term Policy Recommendation Proposal

Prison Term Policy Recommendation Proposal The state overseeing body will vote on a bill that will twofold the best correctional facility time that an individual will get for outfitted robbery if sentenced. The reason behind this suggestion is unreasonably help give unmistakable plans that may help the state authorization people see diverse game plans that may be more profitable. The bill is conspicuous with the state get together; there is an outright need to review the factors that could be a component. I have examined what the new bill potential results are and if there is even need to settle something that is not broken. According to the Uniform Crime Report (UCR), outfitted robbery is portrayed as an exasperated sort of theft in which the respondent is equipped with a perilous weapon. Taking property from an individual or inside seeing someone else with the usage of force or by undermining the use of compel while furnished with a dangerous weapon is suggested quite recently like the importance of prepared robbery (Dictio nary). During the commonplace days a wide range of burglary were meriting passing. The United States Constitution does not allow the execution for a man who has been prosecuted just thievery alone; in any case, in case some person is butchered over the traverse of the burglary the individual can be sentenced to death on a legal offense murder affirmation (Law). Prepared burglary is an exceptional wrongdoing; from January 1, 2011 to March 31, 2011 there were 1081 bank robberies (FBI). I have seen from all the gave reports from the Bureau of Justice Statistics are the lessening in those numbers. Notwithstanding the way that numbers have lessened, they are still exorbitantly various in sum. When trying to make a proposition for this possible bill to twofold the correctional facility sentence for equipped burglary we ought to look at to where the rates where conversely with the past and where they are before long. I picked the years 1980, 1990, and 2005 in light of the way that these years hold a one of a kind expecting to me. In 1980 the rate of prepared robbery was d own 6.6%, in 1990 rate of equipped thievery was down to 5.7% finally in 2005 the outfitted theft rate was down to 2.7%. These numbers reflect an abatement without the development of the correctional facility sentence. Changes made on the quick side could have a negative effect. I am firm follower that if something is not broken it doesnt ought to be settled. The most fundamental suggestion that I can offer is to big business out into the all inclusive community extends that have the extended wrongdoing rates and give more law approval officers in those regions. The extended measure of law approval officers can give debilitation and moreover make the subjects of that gathering feel more secure. A minute proposal that I can offer would be as opposed to actually duplicating the correctional facility sentence, rather essentially increase it by three or four years. In case this bill is passed by this state board, the detainee masses will increase. Exactly when the development of the prisoner masses accomplishes a particular level there will be a need to gather more restorative facilites and correctional facilites to house the overall public. There is always strong common contentions that develop when a remedial office or correctional facility will be gathered in light of the way that no region or gathering needs this kind of office near their territory. Quite of what we would do or new felt that we would endeavor there will constantly be wrongdoing. The last recommendation that I have to offer is to look at the expenses. Considerations, for instance, the expenses to house, support, dress, and give therapeutic organizations to these prisoners will impact everyone from subjects to the gatherings. Individuals on this state administering body board need to remember what the gatherings require and do what is best for them; growing charges it not going to be the fitting reaction with the present conditions of our economy. This bill benefits have contemplations to help fight wrongdoing; I trust that all components ought to be broke down. The best segment will guarantee the gatherings wont be hurt. I assume that since wrongdoing rates of outfitted theft have shown a reducing without the raising of the discipline, the state lawmaking body should not misuse the time and money by brining into component another bill that may not work. This state lawmaking body needs to make his or herself known inside the gatherings and choose for them what is a need and a flat out need. I am firm lover of recuperation. My posit ion is with the use of gathering based conformities and strict endorsements for rehabilitative purposes to the unemployed repeat blameworthy gathering who gives outfitted theft (Limbaugh, 2009). With the use of specialists, ventures, and treatment centers, for instance, informational help aptitudes, coordinating for substance misuse, abuse, and other mental issue could be the reason a man would not submit equipped burglary (Limbaugh). References: FBI. (n.d.). Retrieved August 4, 2012, from Bank Crime Statistics:  http://ww.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/bank-crime-statistics-2011/bank-crime-statistics Limbaugh, S. (2009, October 31). Prison Term Policy Recommendation. Retrieved August  2,2012, from Yahoo voices:http://voices.yahoo.com/shared/print.shtml?content_type=articlecontent_type_id=5645150 Robbery. (n.d). Retrieved August 2, 2012, from Robbery-The History of Robbery:http://law.jrank.org/pages/1984/Robbery-history-robbery.html The Free Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved August 2, 2012, from Armed Robbery: http://legal-dictionary.the freedictionary.com/armed+robbery

Bribery is a wide spread economic crime

Bribery is a wide spread economic crime Bribery, a form of influencing people by owing gifts or money in order to do a job which is beyond their job description can be also stated as extortion. Enormous growth in International Business has made many countries developed and excavated poverty, but has also seeded bribery in each and every sector (Sanyal and Guvenli 2009). Bribery or corruption starts because of poorly paid jobs, Workers or staffs of a firm have an illicit relation with the stake holders of the company in order to make money. In International trade bribery plays a major role, in taking up major contracts and in setting up off shore business. Bribery within its limits can be allowed to get hold of international market segments that in turn leads to a greater benefit for both the company and its stake holders. Bribery beyond its horizons has a greater inclination to the downfall of a countrys economic, political and employability stature. To fasten up the pace of development and growth of a country, in these da ys is easily possible through bribing (Blackburn and Sarmah 2006). But this necessary evil should always be kept in check. Many countries have failed to keep them in check. Today it is necessary for every growing nation to learn from these nations who have lost their track. Some of the countries have taken vigilant steps to put down this bribing activity within their boundaries. The Bribery is a wide spread economic crime in the developing world. Companies that are mainly concerned with the cost benefit analysis make more bribes. A research done by World Bank recognizes that bribery or corruption occurs because of weak accountability of the public institutions, poor civil society, lower educational qualifications, and worse economic policies (Ksenia 2008). Bureaucratic corruption comes with the corruption in international financial market. Companies that work overseas have to make tackling gifts and attractive price in order to keep up the peers in corporate world, by this they are lead into a goodwill wave in their business. In this bureaucratic corruption the bribes are given to the officials of any organization to do a job beyond their usual routine. A survey done in the year 2000 has proved that one out of ten senior managers is ready to break laws. And another survey in the year 1997 showed that 3600 firms in 69 countries are responsible for the corruption spread in that area and for its negative effects happened. (David Ng 2006) In bribery the report from Transparency International (TI) have shown that the bribery in Business segment is about 53 percent in the year 2009, and the major countries affected are Canada, Denmark, Hong Kong, Iceland, Luxembourg, Singapore etc. According to Bribe Payers Index the countries are shown in given table.(Riano and Hodess et. al 2009) Rank Country/ Territory BPI 2008 Score Respondents Standard Deviation Confidence Interval 95% Lower Bound Upper Bound 1 Belgium 8.8 252 2.00 8.5 9.0 1 Canada 8.8 264 1.80 8.5 9.0 3 Netherlands 8.7 255 1.98 8.4 8.9 3 Switzerland 8.7 256 1.98 8.4 8.9 5 Germany 8.6 513 2.14 8.4 8.8 5 United Kingdom 8.6 506 2.10 8.4 8.7 5 Japan 8.6 316 2.11 8.3 8.8 8 Australia 8.5 240 2.23 8.2 8.7 9 France 8.1 462 2.48 7.9 8.3 9 Singapore 8.1 243 2.60 7.8 8.4 9 United States 8.1 718 2.43 7.9 8.3 12 Spain 7.9 355 2.49 7.6 8.1 13 Hong Kong 7.6 288 2.67 7.3 7.9 14 South Africa 7.5 177 2.78 7.1 8.0 14 South Korea 7.5 231 2.79 7.1 7.8 14 Taiwan 7.5 287 2.76 7.1 7.8 17 Italy 7.4 421 2.89 7.1 7.7 17 Brazil 7.4 225 2.78 7.0 7.7 19 India 6.8 257 3.31 6.4 7.3 20 Mexico 6.6 123 2.97 6.1 7.2 21 China 6.5 634 3.35 6.2 6.8 22 Russia 5.9 114 3.66 5.2 6.6 Fig: 1 Bribe Payer Index 2008 Source: http://transparency.org/news_room/latest_news/press_releases/2008/bpi_2008_en The BPI of the year 2008 shows that Belgium and Canada takes up the top position in the list with BPI score of 8.8. World Bank states that corruption is the single greatest obstacle to economic and social development (Blackburn and Sarmah 2006). The International anti bribery conventions is not stopping the Multinational corporations in bribing the government officials in the developing countries. Especially the areas like defence and arms, hospital segments etc. It can also be said as the bureaucratic corruption may not be bad for the business people, this way of bribing helps the individuals having an incentive to compete with the privilege of becoming bureaucrats. Corruption or bribery will make corporate governance deploy, it is said that as corruption gets increased the regulatory oversight gets weak and there will be the worst corporate governance. Corruption in business deals enhances the development of free and fair trade and economic development. Now a days the Cross border transaction increases in number which connects societies with different customs and practices. The Multinational firms which launch in to a new market wins the contracts by bribing at high prices by this the business of the multinational firm get s heated up and moves in a profitable scale. Whereas the domestic market firms which were not able to afford to the high bribe ends in negative scale of business. The multinational firms are highly concerned about the public works construction and defence sectors. They also engage in business like oil, gas, real estate, power generations and telecommunication sectors. The subsidiary companies of the international firms are most likely to be involved in bribery. Government policies are also negatively affected like low quality of goods, slow work of environmental policies. Funds used for education and health are also bribed. There are two types of bribes whitemail bribes and lubrication, bribing an official of an organization to perform an illegal or uneconomic act is referred to whitemail bribery. Bribe which is given to a government official in order to expedite any government approval or legal transaction is called as lubrication. In international trade the level of bribery can taken in two different forms such as Demand side, Supply bribery. The demand side bribery is called as the recipient of bribe and the supply side refers to payer of the bribe. Liberalization also has a greater impact over the bureaucratic corruption, since the bureaucrats value vary this raises the demand of bribe, this situation is called as benefit effect and it is counteracted by an increase in cost effect. This two effects leads to a non-monotonic relation between liberalization and corruption (Bose and pandey 2009). Effects of bribery are widespread on business and economy, it is stated that companies pay bribes since it is cheaper than spending money in research works. Many bribes are done by many companies for taking over the market segments. The attempt to earn income through an illegal mean result in advantage of both parties, the giver gains a profit by getting the order and the bribe receiver earns money or gift, but this process is only for a short period. Inflation will be the result of bribery in the international trade, the Import goods of the country increases and results in trade deficit. This pressure makes the value of the currency to come down, which makes the country more in debt and higher in inflation. As a result of higher inflation the government officials asks for higher bribe and thus the inflation and bribery cycle continues. As a result of high debt the country borrows money from IMF and the World Bank. Even though the World Bank knows that the government has nothing to do with money for the internal economic conditions, if the money is lent for the development of internal economic condition its stolen or wasted for bribing for government officials. Bribery also hurts International trading countries; it also serves as a trade barrier and acts as an unofficial tariff on export. Bribery also prevents open market system and restricts the benefits of trade agreements, with this there will be a negotiation for liberalization among the public officials with the fear of losing the control. The Economic effect of bribery or corruption reduces the economic growth of the country and this leads in decrease of foreign direct investment. World Bank estimates that the widespread corruption can reduce the countrys economic growth as well as reduce the inward investment because the investors have the fear of losing the investment in the corrupt countries. A recent survey shows that there is 60 percent chance of losing investment in Egypt and Syria, and an 80 percent in Algeria, Jordan, Morocco and Turkey (Shahabuddin 2002). The United Nations World report states that about 15 percentages of all firms in the industrialized nations bribe in order to retain their contracts, 60 percent were found in Soviet Union countries and 40 percent in Asia (Shahabuddin 2002). Many countries have started enforcing a ban on this evil bribery, which has resulted in continuous progress in past six years. These countries now represent more than worlds export actions. Out of thirty six countries seven countries are active in evading bribery, and 9 countries partially active. The rest twenty countries are dominant or with little effect. The countries and level of activity can be given as Category Percentage of world trade Countries Active Enforcement ( 7 ) 30% Denmark, Germany, Italy, Norway, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States Moderate Enforcement ( 9 ) 21% Argentina, Belgium, Finland, France, Japan, Korea (South), Netherlands, Spain, Sweden Little or No Enforcement ( 20) 15% Australia, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Estonia, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, South Africa, Turkey Fig : 2 There are few societies which are strong in evading the bribery such as the transparency International organizations. It is highly distinctive that bribery takes the lead role in all business investments thats being carried on in todays business world. With the census it is clearly evident that 53 percent of the business investment involves bribery. Bribery as divided by itself is seen as whitemail and lubrication. Bribery as Lubrication is acceptable to a certain limit but whitemail is never bearable. As the former just increases the pace of a work being done which mostly in turn could have a positive effect on a countries growth but the latter has always a negative effect on the countries growth and in turn spoils the ethic in the business world. Bribery as a whole has a positive inclination for an organisation to enhance its market and trade profit. This in turn leads to greater profit for the organisation and in turn to its stake holders to easily get into the global market and attain maximum profit. Even if this activity is profitable, its quiet obvious for any spectating investor to get note o f the prevailing situation and recede from investing. When somewhere someone does something wrong somewhere someone is affected. This is the perfect effect of bribery at any level. An individuals bribery has a significant effect on the inflation of the nation. This force everyone within responsible positions to fall into the bribing pit which obliviously shows that bribery leads to a circle without ends

Marketing Essay -- Business and Management Studies

Marketing Introduction In my marketing mix decisions I will be looking at four main points for which will be ideal in launching the product. This will state where and how I will be successful in selling my product. I will need to also show clearly how I will be capable of selling this product and see whether people will buy it or not depending on the position. The situation I will be positioning is the 4P’s (Product, Place, Price And Promotion) these will be the main criteria’s I will be aiming to show. Product In the product situation I will be dealing with the design, what the average size should be, should the shower gel be safe for little kids whilst playing around with the container if found, how it will be sellable and what the expectation will be whilst buying the product. These would be the main criteria’s I will be looking at whilst dealing with my products situation and will have to show all the needs of the buyer’s point of view. Â · The design: This should be very simple and casual for which it will more better to buy and it will be better if the product would look like an aquatic design which will show its moistness. It will also be good if there would be a good idea of putting a point of sale display to show its own advertising, this means there should be its own stand in a store showing its only posture. I also believe that more teenagers buy shower gel then adult because they have the willingness of going out and attracting girls or boys by the smell and moist skin. Â · Average Size: The size of the shower gel should be reasonable because people don’t want to carry around really big boxes of shower gel. So for it to be the best size it should be able to fit in a hand which can be easily squeezed and used. There shouldn’t be any tricky part to opening it because whilst having a shower many people don’t have the time to look at the opening part because they are getting showered down with water and so it must be very easy to open. Â · Expectations: Whilst people are out all they see is a reasonable looking shower gel which looks good and smalls good, people won’t be out looking for shower gel with very sparkling shower gel with little strings hanging from them. What people look for is a casual looking shower gel which will be alright to carry out of the store and which will be right to carry around in... ... The Times etc. For internet it’s good to have it as a pop up because people won’t be searching for the new shower gel and it is best if the advert just pops up on their screen to attract attention. To show it on television it is the best idea because nearly whole of the country is glued to the television and they some how find out by looking at the television. Â · Sales Promotion: One of the people who work for the organisation could visit round other places advertising the shower gel in major high streets and giving out small amounts in a mini version making them try it out. This could be used in many places and could also go abroad. By this the organisation can find out how much they like it and whether they would like it to be sold in their stores. By this the shower gel product could expand in many countries. Conclusion From all of this we have found out that the 4P’s mean a lot to the business and that it could make a big difference if there is no action made by it. So by this we find out where and how the product should be sold and what replies there will be. From this we find out whether it should be sold in major stores and what the price should be.

Astronomy Essay -- essays research papers

Astronomy Astronomy is not just about the stars. Astronomy is about the constellations, the nine planets, the sun and the moons. The solar system is very complex and has many extraordinary objects.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are four different types of stars: Protostars, Bright Stars, Red Giants, and White Dwarfs. Protostars are stars that are on the verge of being born. They are glowing clouds of dust and gas. Gravity pulls on every atom moving them towards the center of the cloud of dust, which causes the Protostar to collapse. Over a period of twenty million years the star begins to form and 10 million years after the pocket of gas was formed, a star is born. The second types of stars are called Bright Stars. They are formed when the new star has completed about 35 million years of its life cycle. A star’s life cycle is a lot like a human’s life cycle, except a star’s years are in millions. When a star is about 10 million years old it is in the same stage on average as a regular human that is about twenty years old. The birth and death rate of stars is called Stellar Evolution. A Bright Star is made when nuclear fusion doubles the size of the star. The third types of stars are called Red Giants. They are made because the outward flow of the star’s core energy stops. Gravity then steps in and squeezes the star to make it decrease in size. The core of the star’s heat increases and it starts releasing small amounts of energy, the energy holds a large amount of hydrogen gas. The star then begins to grow larger, but it does not get brighter. As a result of the sudden and fast temperature drop, the star’s color changes from blue-white to a red color. Most Red Giant stars have been found in groups called Globular Clusters. Globular Clusters are groups of up to one million stars that move through space. The fourth type of stars are called White Dwarfs. When a White Dwarf is made the star begins cooling off. As a result of cooling, the outer gas layer spreads out. The star’s temperature drops and makes the gas layer spread out even more. Eventually, the outer layer spreads out so far that the gas layer separates from the star. Then, a Planetary Nebula (cloud of glowing atoms), moves in all directions. The star’s core isn’t giving out any more energy and is to the point of collapsing slowly. All of the matter that the star had in the beginning is still there, but it ... ...on. Orion was an ancient Greek hunter and warrior. The constellation Orion shows him caring a club shield, and a sword dangling from his belt. Orion has more Bright Stars the any other constellations. The two brightest stars in it are Betelgeuse and Rigel. Betelgeuse is Orion’s shoulder and Rigel is his foot. Cassiopeia is another well-known constellation. "Cassiopeia is a group of stars, the brightest which form a large W in the northern sky." (Miller, 10). Cassiopeia is found next to the Big Dipper and Orion. Its shape is an exact M or W, formed with the five bright stars. "The mythic Cassiopeia was an Ethiopian Queen." (Miller 10). Constellations are probably the most interesting thing in the solar system. Most people look at them as an exciting look at the mythological part of our solar system, and others think that they are just another interesting part of the night sky.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Universe is something no one can explain. Our Galaxy is one of the countless galaxies dotted throughout the Universe, like islands in a big ocean. Many objects in the Solar System have yet to be discovered and may never be, but it will always be there and may never change for generations to come.

Essay on Human Nature and The Canterbury Tales -- Canterbury Tales Ess

Human Nature and The Canterbury Tales  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   When Geoffrey Chaucer undertook the writing of The Canterbury Tales, he had a long road ahead of him. He intended to tell two stories from each of thirty pilgrims on the way to Canterbury, and then two more from each pilgrim on the way back from Canterbury. Of these, he completed only twenty-four. However, in these tales, Chaucer depicts both the pilgrims and their stories with striking realism. In "The Nun's Priest's Tale," "The Canon's Yeoman's Tale," "The Friar's Tale," "The Reeve's Tale," and "The Cleric's Tale," Chaucer demonstrates his remarkable insight into human nature. By comparing and contrasting these tales, one can see the universality of human nature as shown by Chaucer. One human trait apparent in these selections is greed. Avarice drives the hearts of many men, whether they may be a common miller or a summoner or a supposedly religious canon, and Chaucer was aware of this. In the tales which contain these three characters, Chaucer depicts the greed of these characters. The Reeve tells his fellow pilgrims in his tale of a miller who "was a thief ... of corn and meal, and sly at that; his habit was to steal" (Chaucer 125). The summoner in "The Friar's Tale" "drew large profits to himself thereby," and as the devil observes of him in this tale, "You're out for wealth, acquired no matter how" (Chaucer 312, 315). The canon in Part 1 of "The Canon's Yeoman's Tale," as well as the Yeoman himself, had been driven by the goal of converting base metals into gold, and "though we never realized the wished conclusion we still went on raving in our illusion" (Chaucer 478). The second canon of which the Yeoman speaks is many times worse than his own canon and mas ter, using h... .... Works Cited Balliet, Gay L. "The Wife in Chaucer's Reeves's Tale: Siren of Sweet Vengeance." English Language Notes 28.1 (1990): 1-5. Baylor, Jeffrey. "The Failure of the Intellect in Chaucer's Reeve's Tale." English Language Notes 28.1 (1990): 17-19. Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Trans. Nevill Coghill. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1960. Dictionary of Literary Biography: Old and Middle English. Ed. Jeffrey Helteman and Jerome Mitchell. Detroit: Sale Research, Inc., 1994. Edden, Valerie. "Sacred and Secular in the Clerk's Tale." The Chaucer Review 26.4 (1992): 369-376. Fehrenbacher, Richard W. "'A Yeerd Enclosed Al About': Literature and History in the Nun's Priest's Tale." The Chaucer Review 29.2 (1994): 134-148. Whittock, Trevor. A Reading of The Canterbury Tales. Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press, 1970.      

Information management in healthcare systems Essay

There is no doubt that it is very important to manage health information especially in realization that patient information is usually scattered in different locations in the health care system. There is need to centralize health information in order to ease dissemination of health care records thus improving quality of care. On the same note, information management in healthcare systems is a potential means of cutting down health care costs. In spite of its importance, management of health information is challenged complexities of implementing electronic information systems, as well information flow all of which are costly to health care providers. Electronic information systems and health care quality Incomplete patient information has been associated with medical errors that have resulted into avoidable deaths. Valerius (2007) for instance reports that up to 98,000 patients in the U. S. ere said to have died as per the Institute of Medicine 2000 report due to avoidable medical errors with most of them being due to lacking patient information. The poor management of patient records is partly attributable to failure to adopt advanced information systems. Health care systems are reluctant in adopting electronic health records (ERH) yet ERH have the potential to eradicate most of the problems related to missing patient information. It should be noted that while an ERH system is encouraged, it is possible to use an electronic system together with a manual system. Due to the complexity associated with shifting from a manual system to an electronic system, medical practitioners tend to reluctant to implement electronic systems (Harrison & McDowell, 2008). As such, the main focus of such practitioners is to provide medical care to the patient and unfortunately neglect record keeping yet patient information is very vital in health care. Information flow Information management in health care systems is a challenging aspect in terms of sharing information. Lack of a central repository on patient information predisposes the patient to medical risks. Stevens (2005) observes that when health information is not centralized, it leads to delayed medical procedures as time is taken to look for the doctor who may be having the information. This is expensive financially and it is a time wasting experience that predisposes the patient to inappropriate medical procedures or death in some case. Even in cases where there is an information repository, information sharing may be a source of problem. In most health care systems, the patient is mandated to collect information on performed medical procedures and then present the same to a general practitioner or a clinician. This process of information flow is not efficient and reliable since the patient can easily damage or misplace the medical report. Stevens (2005) mentions that the likelihood of the medical information not landing into the hands of the intended clinician is high. This is an issue that can be effectively addressed by centralizing patient information. Confidentiality of patient information Maintaining patient information confidentially is one of the principles guiding health care practitioners and breaking such has legal implications (Dolan & Barrister, 2004). As such, healthcare information management is supposed to adhere to this principle. This is however a difficult task with a centralized system which may to a greater extent allows accessibility of information by unauthorized persons. However, this is can be countered by proper authentication of the users of the healthcare system. In addition, the ensuring that the released information flows to the right persons is a potent way of curbing breach of confidentiality. In conclusion, it is appreciable that healthcare systems experience challenges in maintaining efficient information management systems. Reluctance to adopt electronic health record systems and little emphasis on need to preserve patient information is the main cause. Healthcare systems must realize that efficient information systems will reduce medical errors and costs related to such errors as well as enhance information flow. The possible problem of breached confidentiality should be addressed by allowing authorized access to centralized health information.

The Rise of the West and the Western Dominated Economy: The Atlantic Slave Trade

Much of Africa followed its own lines of development between the beginning of the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries. The rise of the West and the Western-dominated economy, however, was a powerful force in influencing the course of African history. The Atlantic slave trade predominated in economic affairs after the middle of the seventeenth century. The forced removal of Africans had a major effect in some African regions and was a primary factor contributing to the nature of New World populations. African culture became one of the important strands in the development of American civilizations. Despite the rise of the West and the slave trade, nearly all of Africa remained politically independent and culturally autonomous. Among the important trends, Islam consolidated its position in sub-Saharan and East Africa, while in many parts of Africa, independent states formed and expanded. The Atlantic Slave Trade. The Portuguese inaugurated the pattern for contacts along the African coast. They established trading forts (factories); the most important, El Mina, received gold from the interior. Most forts were established with the approval of African authorities desiring trade benefits. Some of the forts allowed trade to interior states. Portuguese and Afro-Portuguese traders (lancados) followed routes to the interior to open new markets. Missionary efforts followed, particularly to the powerful states of Benin and the Kongo. King Nzinga Mvemba of the Kongo accepted Christianity and, with Portuguese assistance, sought to introduce European influences to his state. The ravages of the slave trade were a major reason for the limited success of the policies. Africa, in general, tried to fit the European concepts they found useful into their belief structures. The Europeans regarded Africans as pagan savages who could adopt civilized behavior and convert to Christianity. The Portuguese continued their southward ventures, in the 1570s establishing Luanda on the Angolan coast among the Mbundu. In the Indian Ocean, they established bases on Mozambique Island and other towns in an effort to control the gold trade coming from Monomotapa. On both coasts, few Portuguese settled permanently. Other Europeans followed Portuguese patterns by creating trading stations through agreement with Africans. In almost all instances, slavery eventually became the principal focus of relationships. Added impetus came from the development of sugar plantations on Portuguese and Spanish Atlantic islands and their subsequent extension to the Americas. Trend Toward Expansion. Between 1450 and 1850, about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic; about 10 or 11 million arrived alive. A number equal to one third of those shipped might have died in the initial raiding or march to the coast. The volume of the trade increased from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, with 80% of the total coming in the latter century. Brazil received more than 40% of all slaves reaching the Americas. The continued high volume was necessary because of high slave mortality and low fertility. Only in the southern United States did slaves have a positive growth rate. Other slave trades—trans-Saharan, Red Sea, and East African—under Muslim control, added another 3 million individuals to the total. Demographic Patterns. The Saharan slave trade to the Islamic world carried mostly women for sexual and domestic employment. The Atlantic trade concentrated on young men fit for hard labor in the Americas. African societies who sold slaves might keep women and children for their own uses. The Atlantic trade had an important demographic effect on parts of western and central Africa; the population there in 1850 might have been one half of what it would have been without the trade. The women and children not exported skewed the balance of the sexes in African-enslaving societies. The introduction of American crops, such as maize and manioc, helped suffering regions to recover from population losses. Organization of the Trade. Control over the slave trade reflected the European political situation. Until 1630, the Portuguese were the principal suppliers. The Dutch became major competitors after they seized El Mina in 1630. By the 1660s, the English worked to supply their plantation colonies. The French became major carriers in the eighteenth century. Each nation established forts for receiving slaves. Tropical diseases caused both resident Europeans and the crews of slave-carrying ships high mortality rates. The Europeans dealt with local rulers, calculating value in currencies composed of iron bars, brass rings, and cowry shells. The Spanish had a system in which a healthy man was considered a standard unit called an â€Å"Indies piece. Slaves arrived at the coast as a result of warfare and of purchase and movement by indigenous traders. Dahomey had a royal monopoly on slave flow. There have been arguments about the profitability of the slave trade. It has been suggested that its profits were a key element for the rise of commercial capitalism and the Industrial Revolution. Individual voyages certainly did bring profits to merchant s and specializing ports. But considerable risks were involved. English profitability in the late eighteenth century was about 5% to 10%, about equal to other commercial ventures. The full economic importance is difficult to determine because of its direct links to the plantation and mining economies of the Americas. Goods were exchanged among Europe, Africa, and the Americas in complex patterns. The slave trade surely contributed to emerging Atlantic capitalism, while at the same time making African economies dependent on European trade and linked to the world economy. African Societies, Slavery, and the Slave Trade. The Atlantic trade transformed African patterns of slavery. Africans had developed many forms of servitude in their nonegalitarian societies. With land controlled by the state, slaves were an important way for individuals and lineages to gain wealth and status. Slaves held many occupations. Their treatment ranged from the relatively benign, when they were incorporated into kinship systems, to severe economic and social exploitation, when ruling hierarchies exercised power. The Atlantic trade opened new opportunities to slave-holding societies for expansion and intensification of slavery. Enslavement of women was central to African society. The Sudanic states had introduced Islamic concepts of slavery. The existence of slavery allowed Europeans to mobilize commerce in slaves by tapping existing structures with the assistance of interested African rulers. Slaving and African Politics. Most of the states of western and central Africa were small and unstable. The continuing wars elevated the importance of the military and promoted the slave trade. Increasing centralization and hierarchy developed in the enslaving societies; those attacked reacted by augmenting self-sufficiency and antiauthoritarn ideas. A result of the presence of the Europeans along the western coast was a shift of the locus of African power. Inland states close to the coast, and thus free from direct European influence, through access to Western firearms and other goods, became intermediaries in the trade and expanded their influence. Asante and Dahomey. Among the important states developing during the slave trade era was the empire of Asante among the Akan people. Centered on Kumasi, Asante was between the coast and the inland Hausa and Mande trading regions. Under the Oyoko clan, the Asante gained access to firearms after 1650 and began centralizing and expanding. Osei Tutu became the asantehene, the supreme civil and military leader, of the Akan clans. By 1700, the Dutch along the coast were dealing directly with the new power. Through control of gold-producing regions and slaves, Asante remained dominant in the Gold Coast until the 1820s. In the Bight of Benin, the state of Benin was at the height of its power when Europeans arrived. The ruler for a long period controlled the trade with Europeans; slaves never were a primary commodity. The kingdom of Dahomey among the Fon peoples had a different response to the Europeans. It emerged around Abomey in the seventeenth century; by the 1720s, access to firearms led to the formation of an autocratic regime based on trading slaves. Under Agaja (1708-1740), Dahomey expanded to the coast, seizing the port of Whydah. The state maintained its policies into the nineteenth century. Too much emphasis on the slave trade obscures creative processes occurring in many African states. The growing divine authority of rulers paralleled the rise of absolutism in Europe. New political forms emerged that limited the power of some monarchs. In the Yoruba state of Oyo, a council and king shared authority. Art, crafts, weaving, and wood carving flourished in many regions. Benin and the Yoruba states created remarkable wood and ivory sculptures. East Africa and the Sudan. On Africa's east coast, the Swahili trading towns continued a commerce of ivory, gold, and slaves for Middle Eastern markets. A few slaves went to European plantation colonies. On Zanzibar and other islands, Arabs, Indians, and Swahili produced cloves with slave labor. In the interior, African peoples had created important states. Migrants from the upper Nile valley moved into Uganda and Kenya, where they mixed with Bantu-speaking inhabitants. Strong monarchies developed in Bunyoro and Buganda. In western Africa, in the northern savanna, the process of Islamization entered a new phase linking it with the external slave trade and the growth of slavery. Songhay broke up in the sixteenth century and was succeeded by new states. The Bambara of Segu were pagan; the Hausa states of northern Nigeria were ruled by Muslims, although most of the population followed African religions. Beginning in the 1770s, Muslim reform movements swept the western Sudan. In 1804, Uthman Dan Fodio, a Fulani Muslim, inspired a religious revolution that won control of most of the Hausa states. A new and powerful kingdom developed at Sokoto. The effects of Islamization were felt widely in the West African interior by the 1840s. Cultural and social change accelerated. Many war captives were dispatched to the coast or across the Sahara for the slave trade. The level of local slave labor also increased in agricultural and manufacturing enterprises. White Settlers and Africans in Southern Africa. By the sixteenth century, Bantu-speaking peoples occupied the eastern regions of southern Africa. Drier western lands were left to the indigenous Khoikhoi and San. Migration, peaceful contacts, and war characterized the relations between the groups. The Bantu peoples practiced agriculture and herding, worked iron and copper, and traded with neighbors. Chiefdoms of various sizes, where leaders ruled with popular support, were typical. New chiefdoms continually emerged, resulting in competition for land and political instability. In the Dutch colony at Cape Town, established in 1652, the settlers developed large estates worked by slaves. Colonial expansion led to successful wars against the San and Khoikhoi. By the 1760s, the Afrikaners crossed the Orange River and met the Bantu. Competition and war over land resulted. Britain occupied the Dutch colony in 1795 and gained formal possession in 1815. British efforts to limit Afrikaner expansion were unsuccessful, and frequent fighting occurred between the Afrikaners and Africans. Some Afrikaners, seeking to escape British control, migrated beyond colonial boundaries and founded autonomous states. The Mfecane and the Zulu Rise to Power. By 1818, a new leader, Shaka, gained authority among the Nguni people. He created a formidable military force of regiments organized on lineage and age lines. Shaka's Zulu chiefdom became the center of a new political and military organization that absorbed or estroyed rivals. Shaka was assassinated in 1828, but his successors ruled over a still-growing polity. The rise of the Zulu and other Nguni chiefdoms marked the beginning of the Mfecane, a time of wars and wandering. Defeated peoples fled into new regions and created new states—among them the Swazi and Lesotho—by using Zulu tactics. The Afrikanersâ⠂¬â„¢ superior firepower enabled them to hold their lands. The Zulus remained powerful until defeated during the 1870s by the British. The basic patterns of conflict between Europeans and Africans took form during this era. In Depth: Slavery and Human Society. Slavery has existed in both complex and simpler societies from the earliest times. Coerced labor took different forms: indentured servants, convict laborers, debt peons, chattel slaves. The denial of control over an individual’s labor was the essential characteristic of slavery systems. It was easier to enslave people outside one’s own society, to exploit differences in culture, language, and color. The attitude of Europeans and non-African Muslims thus contributed to the development of modern racism. The campaign against slavery that grew from Enlightenment ideas was an important turning point in world history. Slavery has persisted in a few societies until the present, but few individuals openly defend the institution. African slavery was important in shaping the modern world. It was one of the early international trades, and it assisted the development of capitalism. Vociferous debate continues about many interpretations of the effect of the trade on African and American societies. The African Diaspora. In the Americas, slaves came in large enough numbers to become an important segment of the New World population. African cultures adapted to their new physical and social environments. The slave trade linked Africa and the Americas; it was the principal way in which African societies joined the world economy. Africans participating in the commerce dealt effectively with the new conditions, using the wealth and knowledge gained to the advantage of their states. Slave Lives. The slave trade killed millions of Africans; family and community relationships were destroyed. As many as one third of captives may have died on their way to shipping ports; shipboard mortality reached about 8%. The trauma of the Middle Passage, however, did not strip Africans of their culture, and they interjected it into the New World. Africans in the Americas. African slaves crossed the Atlantic to work in New World plantations and mines. The plantation system developed on Atlantic islands was transferred to the Americas. Africans quickly replaced Indians and indentured Europeans as agricultural laborers. Slaves also mine d gold and silver and labored in many urban occupations. In early seventeenth-century Lima, Africans outnumbered Europeans. American Slave Societies. In all American slave societies, a rough social hierarchy developed. Whites were at the top, slaves at the bottom. Free people of color were in-between. Among the slaves, owners created a hierarchy based on origin and color. Despite the many pressures, slaves retained their own social perceptions: many slave rebellions were organized on ethnic and political lines. Slave-based societies varied in composition. Africans formed the overwhelming majority of the population on Caribbean islands; high mortality ensured a large number of African-born individuals. Brazil had a more diverse population. Many slaves were freed, and miscegenation was common. Slaves made up 35% of the population; free people of color were equal in number. The southern British North American colonies differed in that a positive growth rate among slaves lessened the need for continuing imports. Manumission was uncommon, and free people of color were under 10% of Afro-American numbers. Thus, slavery was less influenced by African ways. The People and Gods in Exile. Africans worked under extremely harsh conditions. The lesser numbers of women brought to the New World limited opportunities for family life. When a family was present, its continuance depended on the decisions of the owner. Despite the difficulties, most slaves lived in family units. Many aspects of African culture survived, especially when a region had many slaves from one African grouping. African culture was dynamic and creative, incorporating customs that assisted survival from different African ethnicities or from their masters. Religion demonstrates this theme. African beliefs mixed with Christianity, or survived independently. Haitian vodun is a good example of the latter. Muslim Africans tried to hold their beliefs; in 1835, a major slave rising in Brazil was organized by Muslim Yoruba and Hausa. Resistance to slavery was a common occurrence. Slaves ran away and formed lasting independent communities; in seventeenth-century Brazil, Palmares, a runaway slave state under Angolan leadership, had a population of 10,000. In Suriname, runaway slaves formed a still-existing community with a culture fusing West African, Indian, and European elements. The End of the Slave Trade and the Abolition of Slavery. The influences causing the end of the slave trade and slavery were external to Africa. The continued flourishing of slave-based economies in Africa and the Americas makes it difficult to advance economic self-interest as a reason for ending the slave trade. Africans had commercial alternatives, but they did not affect the supply of slaves. Enlightenment thinkers during the eighteenth century condemned slavery and the slave trade as immoral and cruel. The abolitionist movement gained strength in England and won abolition of the slave trade for Britons in 1807. The British pressured other nations to follow course, although the final end of New World slavery did not occur until Brazilian abolition in 1888.